Codex Aretinus 405 contains the only surviving copy of Egeria’s Travels.
Lameiro, CC BY-SA 4.0, via Wikimedia Commons

Egeria’s Travels is an early Christian pilgrimage account by an educated and well-traveled woman from the Roman province of Galicia (in modern Spain) that tells of her journey to and around the Holy Land. Dating to the late fourth century, this work is a rich source of geographical and historical information.

The account is unfortunately incomplete and survives in a single manuscript, now in the municipal library of Arezzo, Italy. Egeria’s work appears on pages 31–74 of Codex Aretinus 405, which was produced in the 11th century in the monastery of Monte Cassino. It is debatable how faithfully this copy transmits the original work. The parchment manuscript lacks the beginning and ending as well as four pages in the middle. Due to this state of preservation, the original title has not survived. The customary title derives from the work’s content and is variously given as Itinerarium Egeriae (Egeria’s Travels), Peregrinatio ad Loca Sancta (Pilgrimage to the Holy Sites), or Peregrinatio Aetheriae (Pilgrimage of Etheria).

The eBook, The Dead Sea Scrolls: Past, Present, and Future, brings together articles and interviews with the world’s leading experts on the scrolls. Receive your free copy today!

Email(Required)

REQUEST FREE BOOK

The author’s identity is similarly modern conjecture. Addressing her readers repeatedly as dominae (“ladies”), dominae animae meae (“my dear ladies”), and dominae sorores (“sister ladies”), she clearly was a woman—either a nun writing for fellow nuns or a noblewoman writing for her intimate circle of pious friends. The first scholar to publish the manuscript, G.F. Gamurrini, identified her with the fourth-century noblewoman Silvia di Aquitania. She was later identified with Galla Placidia (388–450), a daughter of the Byzantine emperor Theodosius I, and with “the religious person” whom the seventh-century hermit Valerius of Bierzo (in Galicia, Spain) praised, in a letter to his fellow monks, for her pilgrimage to the Levant. Since different manuscripts of this letter provide several different spellings of her name, she has been variously known as Aetheria, Etheria, and Egeria, the last of which is currently most widely used.

Although the surviving manuscript of Egeria’s Travels dates from the 11th century, the work was likely composed in the late fourth century. From internal evidence (e.g., historical events and names of local figures), scholars infer that Egeria traveled for three years sometime between 381 and 384. This early date makes her account the first Western report about the Christian communities in the Levant, and possibly the first female author from Spain. The text is written in a peculiar type of Late Latin, which was the original language of the composition. A blend of classical and colloquial constructions reflecting the style of the Latin Bible, Egeria’s style is simple and clear, though with numerous dialectal and regional idiosyncrasies.

Divided into two parts with epistolary features, the work possibly originated as two letters. The first one reports on four trips: (1) to Mt. Sinai and back to Jerusalem, via the land of Goshen (1–9); (2) to Mt. Nebo and the traditional tomb of Moses (10–12); (3) to Carneas in Idumea (13–16); and (4) the return voyage to Constantinople, with stops at Edessa, Charris, Tarsus, Seleucia, and Chalcedon (16–23). The second part concerns the liturgical rites Egeria observed in Jerusalem (24–45), the catechesis prior to and after baptism (45–47), and the anniversary celebrations of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre (48–49), after which the text breaks off. It has been suggested that the lost parts of Egeria’s Travels contained descriptions of the holy buildings of Jerusalem, a trip to Egypt, Samaria, and Galilee (with a hike up Mt. Tabor), and details of an excursion into Judea.

Our website, blog and email newsletter are a crucial part of Biblical Archaeology Society's nonprofit educational mission

This costs substantial money and resources, but we don't charge a cent to you to cover any of those expenses.

If you'd like to help make it possible for us to continue Bible History Daily, BiblicalArchaeology.org, and our email newsletter please donate. Even $5 helps:

Egeria’s Travels was popular through the Middle Ages, and later works are known to have used Egeria’s account, including the 12th-century Liber de locis sanctis (Book About the Holy Sites) by Peter the Deacon, who apparently had the intact Codex Aretinus at his disposal.

The most recent English translation of Egeria’s Travels, with the facing Latin text, is Paul F. Bradshaw and Anne McGowan’s Egeria, Journey to the Holy Land (Brepols, 2020). The best critical edition of the Latin original appeared in the series Corpus Christianorum Series Latina, vol. 175 (Itineraria et alia geographica, pp. 37–90; Brepols, 1965); a different Latin edition (from Sources Chrétiennes, vol. 296) is available online.

Related reading in Bible History Daily

Pilgrims’ Progress to Byzantine Jerusalem

Where Was Moses Buried?

3 Pilgrimage Paths from Galilee to Jerusalem

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

Text Treasures: The Pilgrimage of Egeria

Past Perfect: A Pilgrim on Mt. Sinai

A Pilgrim’s Journey

This article was first published in Bible History Daily on May 1, 2024.

The post Text Treasures: The Pilgrimage of Egeria appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Fresco of Helen and Paris from the newly excavated dining room. Image courtesy of the Italian Ministry of Culture.

Ongoing excavations at the Italian site of Pompeii recently revealed a spectacular dining hall with elegant black walls, decorated with beautiful frescoes featuring mythological scenes inspired by the Trojan War. Measuring about 50 feet long and 20 feet wide, the hall also had an exquisite mosaic floor.

One fresco features two of the central characters to the Trojan War saga—Paris and Helen, whose love ultimately resulted in the war itself. Helen is flanked by an attendant while a loyal hound sits at Paris’s feet. Of note is the Greek inscription next to Paris that refers to him by his other name, “Alexandros.” According to legend, Paris received this name (which means “Protector of Men”) for his bravery in his days as a shepherd before being recognized as the lost prince of Troy.

Opposite Helen and Paris is a scene featuring Priam’s daughter Cassandra and the god Apollo. Cassandra is a tragic character who ultimately could not prevent the Trojan War even though she had been blessed with the gift of foresight. According to myth, Cassandra agreed to be Apollo’s bride in exchange for the gift of prophecy. When the time came to give herself to Apollo, she refused and the god cursed her with a gift of true prophecy that would never be believed. Instead, she is treated as a madwoman by her family and people. Following the events of the war, she is taken by Agamemnon to be his prized slave.

Fresco of Apollo and Cassandra from the newly excavated dining room. Image courtesy of the Italian Ministry of Culture.

According to press statements, the team believes the walls of the dining room were painted black to prevent the smoke from oil lamps staining the walls. When used in the dark of the evening, the flickering lights from the lamps would have made the beautiful images on the black background seemingly dance and move, “especially after a few glasses of good Campania wine,” said Pompeii Archaeological Park director Gabriel Zuchtriegel.

FREE ebook, Recipes from the BAR Test Kitchen Make your own food from recipes handed down from biblical times. Download now.

Email(Required)

REQUEST FREE BOOK

The homes of wealthy Romans were often adorned with mythological figures and legendary scenes. While the paintings were definitely a sign of status, they also served a social function by offering dinner guests with subjects of conversation. “The mythical couples were ideas for conversation about the past and life,and only seemed to be romantic in nature,” Zuchtriegel continued. “In reality, they speak of the relationship between the individual and destiny.”

The townhouse dining room. Image courtesy of the Italian Ministry of Culture.

The exquisite dining hall is located in a domus (wealthy Roman townhouse) in the Regio IX area that the team has been excavating for about a year in connection with the Pompeii Archaeological Park’s extensive renovation efforts. Many exciting discoveries have been made in Regio IX recently, including a fullonica (laundry), pistrinum (bakery), and a construction site, all within the vicinity of the domus. In their official reports, the excavators suggest the laundry and bakery were residences repurposed by the owner of the townhouse. The name Aulus Rustius Verus was written on a millstone that was discovered in the bakery. This same man was running for a political office called aedile, according to political graffiti discovered nearby. The aedile was responsible for various public duties, including maintenance of public buildings, organizing festivals, and maintaining the civic infrastructure. Rustius Verus is known to have been one of the two duumviri (the highest office in a city), alongside Giulio Polibio, and could have possibly been the owner of the richly decorated town house.

This article was originally published in Bible History Daily on April 22, 2024.

Related Reading in Bible History Daily

The Destruction of Pompeii—God’s Revenge?

Luxurious Private Bath Uncovered at Pompeii

DNA and Gender at Pompeii

The Survivors of Mount Vesuvius

Pompeii Reborn

Excavating Pompeii’s Middle Class

Pompeii Fast Food Restaurant Uncovered

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

The Destruction of Pompeii—God’s Revenge?

How to Find a Brothel in Pompeii

Saved from Vesuvius

Climbing Vesuvius

The post New Frescoes Discovered at Pompeii appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Fresco of the Good Shepherd. By Wilpert, Joseph (1857—1944). Public Domain.

A short walk through Rome confirms the richness of its history. From the Pantheon to the Colosseum, the city boasts magnificent architecture and art. Yet it might surprise that some of the city’s most significant art lies beneath its surface.

Rome has more than 40 catacombs scattered around its ancient perimeter, often along major roads, that date from the second through fifth centuries CE. These underground burial sites consist of halls and chambers with burial niches. They also contain funerary inscriptions and art that provide insight into the city’s ancient pagan, Jewish, and Christian inhabitants.

For the intrepid traveler who wishes to see some of the earliest Christian art—from not only Rome, but also the entire world—a visit to the Catacomb of Priscilla is essential. Sometimes called the Queen Catacomb because of the many martyrs and popes buried there, the Catacomb of Priscilla has miles of subterranean tunnels spread across two main levels. Walking through the catacomb in the dim light gives the feeling of being in a labyrinth. Fortunately, you’re never unescorted, so you won’t get lost!

Become a BAS All-Access Member Now!

Read Biblical Archaeology Review online, explore 50 years of BAR, watch videos, attend talks, and more

Planning Your Visit

The catacomb sits along the Via Salaria in the Trieste neighborhood of Rome, about a 20-minute drive from the city center. Access is by guided tour only, and reservations tend to fill up quickly, especially during the spring and summer. I’d recommend booking your tour at least a week beforehand. If your schedule is not flexible, you would want to book it even earlier, to secure your desired tour time. Just a note that the Catacomb of Priscilla is closed on Mondays, so be sure to plan accordingly.

Tours are available in three languages: English, Italian, and Spanish. Tickets are about $10—or a little more if booked online, as booking fees apply. Children under age 6 can enter for free. You can make a reservation directly through their website or find a third-party tour that will take you through several catacombs. The latter would be a better option for those who wish to see both Jewish and Christian funerary art.

Your Journey Through the Catacomb of Priscilla

Your tour of the Catacomb of Priscilla begins at the ticket office and gift shop, located in a cloister of the convent of the Benedictine Sisters of Priscilla. After meeting your guide and the rest of your group, you descend together into the catacomb via a staircase. It is significantly colder in the catacomb than outside. I’d suggest bringing a long-sleeved layer, such as a light jacket or sweater.

They advise arriving 15 minutes before the time of your reservation, which is wise considering the irregularities of traffic in Rome. The tour will not wait for latecomers, and it’s not always possible to slip into a later time slot, as they are often full. However, if you are late, not all is lost. Someone at the ticket office may escort you to join up with the rest of the group.

Tours last 30 minutes and take visitors on a partial route of the vast catacomb. Highlights include third-century frescoes of the magi with Mary and Jesus as an infant (Matthew 2:11) … and of the Good Shepherd (John 10:11; see image above). The scene of the magi is the earliest extant depiction of the magi, or three wise men. It also competes as being the earliest depiction of Mary—and maybe even Jesus.^a The catacomb contains numerous scenes and figures from the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) as well, including Noah, Jonah, and Daniel.

On your tour, you will likely be shown two more frescoes that supposedly depict Mary: a scene of the Annunciation (Luke 1:26–38) and of the Madonna and Child next to a prophet pointing at a star (Numbers 24:17; Matthew 2:9), but these may not be biblical. Prior to modern restorations, they resembled traditional Roman funerary scenes.

Photography is not permitted in the catacomb, as exposure to light damages the delicate frescoes. However, for those who wish to remember their visit, postcards and books are available in the gift shop.

After exploring the most famous portions of the catacomb, the guide leads you back through the winding passageways to the gift shop, where the tour ends. Before continuing on your exploration of Rome, you may wish to use the lavatories at the rear of the gift shop or rest in the connecting shaded courtyard.

Rome is a special city, as its past is intertwined with its present. This is especially apparent with the catacomb, whose tunnels sprawl beneath the Villa Ada Park, which sits across the street from cafés, restaurants, and shops. The catacomb entrance itself is connected to a functioning convent. And both the convent and the catacomb bear the name “Priscilla,” probably the patroness who donated the land for the burials nearly 2,000 years ago. She and those buried in the catacomb certainly left their mark on a city that has served as a political, commercial, and religious capital for millennia.

Notes:

a. For more on the earliest Christian art, including frescoes from Dura-Europos in eastern Syria, see Mary Joan Winn Leith, “Earliest Depictions of the Virgin Mary“, BAR, March/April 2017.

Related reading in Bible History Daily:

Tour the Roman Catacombs

Classical Corner: A Subterranean Surprise in the Roman Catacombs

Priscilla in the New Testament

Millions of Mummified Dogs Uncovered at Saqqara

The post The Catacomb of Priscilla appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

The Colosseum or Rome, constructed out of Roman Concrete. Courtesy Megan Sauter.

From the Pantheon of Rome to the port of Caesarea Maritima, Roman buildings have stood the test of time, thanks to one specific material: Roman concrete. Yet despite decades of research, the secret of Roman concrete has remained tantalizingly allusive. But not anymore, suggests a study published in the journal Science Advances. According to its authors – led by researchers from MIT, – one key component of this ancient material gave it a special property, self-healing.

FREE ebook. The Olympic Games: How They All Began. Read about the ancient origins of the Olympics, some 2,700 years ago. Download now.

Email(Required)

REQUEST FREE BOOK

Self-Healing Concrete

Thanks to ancient descriptions of the material by Pliny the Elder and Vitruvius, as well as modern research, we know that Roman concrete was made with volcanic rock and other aggregates bound by a mortar of volcanic ash, lime, and water. While this formula is not remarkably different from the one we use today, the longevity of the material might have to do with the precise technique used in its preparation and known as “hot mixing.” The team was turned onto this possibility by the ubiquity of lime clasts throughout Roman concrete. These chunks of unincorporated lime have often been interpreted as the result of sloppy mixing or low-quality materials.

“The idea that the presence of these lime clasts was simply attributed to low quality control always bothered me,” said Admir Masic, the lead author of the study, in a press release. “If the Romans put so much effort into making an outstanding construction material, following all of the detailed recipes that had been optimized over the course of many centuries, why would they put so little effort into ensuring the production of a well-mixed final product? There has to be more to this story.”

The Pantheon of Rome is an unreinforced dome constructed out of Roman concrete. Courtesy Photo Companion to the Bible.

Indeed, the Romans have long been thought of as master builders and engineers, whose constructions have stood the test of time as few others have done. The Pantheon of Rome, for example, remains the world’s largest unreinforced concrete dome, despite being nearly 2,000 years old. In contrast, modern concrete begins to degrade after only a few decades. So, what is the secret of Roman concrete?

While studying a concrete sample from the wall of the ancient Roman city of Privernum, the team noticed that the lime clasts within the concrete showed signs of having formed in high temperature and low humidity conditions. This could not be explained by the traditional process of lime slaking, where the lime is hydrated in water to create a paste before being added to the other mortar materials. Instead, the presence of these lime clasts can only be explained by the process of hot mixing, where the lime is added directly to the mortar mixture and only then water is incorporated. This would lead to an exothermic reaction, creating a high heat and low humidity environment within the mortar.

“The benefits of hot mixing are twofold,” said Masic. “First, when the overall concrete is heated to high temperatures, it allows chemistries that are not possible if you only used slaked lime, producing high-temperature-associated compounds that would not otherwise form. Second, this increased temperature significantly reduces curing and setting times since all the reactions are accelerated, allowing for much faster construction.”

Overlooking the artificial harbor of Caesarea Maritima which was constructed largely out of Roman concrete. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Although often considered an unwanted byproduct, the unfused lime can work as a lasting source of calcium within the concrete, long after it has already been set. When incorporated with water, through a crack or other defect in the concrete, the lime clast reacts to create a calcium-rich solution that can operate as glue to fill in holes and cracks. As such, the concrete can self-heal small cracks within itself even centuries or millennia after it was created. Although this process had previously been noticed within Roman concrete, its causes remained unknown.

To double-check their results, the team prepared several samples of concrete using their theorized method for Roman concrete. Then they deliberately cracked the material and began to run water through the cracks. After two weeks, the team’s new Roman concrete was completely sealed.

Despite knowing of the incredible power of their concrete, it is unlikely that the Romans ever understood the chemical science behind it or its longevity. “They knew that was a great material, but they probably didn’t know that it would last thousands of years,” Masic told The Guardian.

The Secret of Roman Concrete and Eco-Friendly Construction

With the final secret of Roman concrete potentially in hand, the team is now working to commercialize their new cement recipe. While it has the potential to provide higher-quality and longer-lasting concrete, it can also significantly mitigate the environmental toll of the production of concrete. Currently, cement production accounts for about eight percent of global greenhouse gas emissions. By drastically lowering the frequency at which concrete needs to be replaced, as well as requiring only a fraction of the energy to make, this new concrete would sharply reduce the quantity of yearly emissions by the concrete industry. Perhaps the most instantly noticeable benefit of such material, though, would simply be in the reduced number of potholes on roads across the globe.

Read more in Bible History Daily:

Roman Concrete

OnSite: Caesarea Maritima

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library:

Roman Latrines

Recovering Roman Jerusalem—The Entryway Beneath Damascus Gate

Not a BAS Library or All-Access Member yet? Join today.

The post The Secret of Roman Concrete appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Intricate murals painted on a tomb in Blaundus.
Photo: Blaundus Archaeological Excavation Project Archive

New excavations at the site of Blaundus in western Turkey are shedding light on the burial practices of ancient Asia Minor. Blaundus was a major city during the Roman and Byzantine periods and the seat of numerous bishops during the early years of Christianity. As reported in Smithsonian Magazine, recent excavations have exposed as many as 400 rock-cut tombs dating to around 1,800 years ago. Several of the tombs contain intricate painted murals depicting vines, animals, and even Roman gods.

The earliest tombs, which date to the second century C.E., were simple chambers cut into the side of a prominent cliff face at the site. As the original chambers became overcrowded with generations of burials, additional rooms were dug further back into the cliff, creating intricate multiroom systems, with their openings covered by massive marble doors. Many of the tombs also contain large amounts of grave goods, such as jewelry, mirrors, coins, and oil lamps which were intended to help the departed on their journey in the afterlife. Evidence suggests that many of the tombs were in use until the fourth century.

“Anatolia’s Stonehenge,” one of Blaundus’s many ancient monumental structures.
Photo: Klaus-Peter Simon via Wikimedia Commons.

Originally founded by one of Alexander the Great’s commanders, Blaundus was an important Hellenistic and Roman city. Today, it contains a wealth of archaeological wonders  that have only begun to be explored. In addition to the massive necropolis that sheds light on the burial practices of ancient Asia Minor, Blaundus contains many other impressive structures, including temples, a theater, a public bath, aqueducts, a stadium, and even a monumental building that has earned the nickname “Anatolia’s Stonehenge” because of its uncanny resemblance to the British monument.

Read more in Bible History Daily:

In Turkey, Underground City Thought to be World’s Largest Has Been Found

Jews in Roman Turkey

Apostle Philip’s Tomb Found in Turkey

Jordanian Oasis Reveals Ancient Burial Customs

Members, read more in the BAS Library:

Not a BAS Library or All-Access Member yet? Join today.

Why Bone Boxes?: Splendor of Herodian Jerusalem reflected in burial practices by Steven Fine

Ancient Burial Customs Preserved in Jericho Hills: Illegal bedouin digging leads to discovery of enormous cemetery in Judean wilderness by Rachel Hachlili

Excarnation: Food For Vultures: Unlocking the mysteries of Chalcolithic ossuaries by Rami Arav

The post Burial Practices of Ancient Asia Minor appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

THE JEWISH RELIGIOUS ICONOGRAPHY depicted in this burial chapel in the Villa Torlonia Catacombs in Rome prominently features the Ark of the Covenant, flanked by two seven-branched menorahs, the pomegranate, and the etrog fruit.

Like anywhere in the diaspora, the Jews of ancient Rome lived their unique lives according to their religion and specific customs, which were different from their Christian or pagan neighbors. Seemingly, in death the Jewish community adopted the same way of burying their dead as their Christian neighbors—in catacombs. Yes, catacombs are not a purely Christian phenomenon, since in the first few centuries of our era, the large Jewish population of Rome created at least five such subterranean systems of burial chambers that scholars now recognize as Jewish catacombs.

“More than 600 ancient Jewish inscriptions have been identified from the city of Rome, the vast majority coming from funerary contexts. Epitaphs, or tombstone inscriptions, offer glimpses of people whose names would otherwise be lost to time,” writes Megan Nutzman in her column “Jewish Epitaphs from Ancient Rome,” published in the Winter 2020 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review. An Assistant Professor of history at Old Dominion University, Nutzman examines Jewish epitaphs from the catacombs of ancient Rome to look for patterns in these inscriptions and see what they can tell us about the Jews living in the city.

Taking her father’s military headstone as the painful point of departure, Nutzman looks at symbols and phrases, imagery and sentiments that appear on the Jewish funerary inscriptions from Roman catacombs, to analyze the commemorative choices and their possible implications. “Only limited insights about an individual can be gleaned from reading his or her funeral inscription in isolation,” admits Nutzman. She, however, goes on to explain the basic methodology behind her study: “The limited insights to be gleaned from any one inscription are no different among the Jewish catacombs than they are at Fort Snelling, but, by aggregating data from a large number of inscriptions, we can begin to identify patterns.”

To this end, Nutzman examines in what languages the epitaphs are written, whether the age at death or any epithet or ethical qualities or a synagogue title are included with the name of the loved one, whether the name and relationship of the dedicator appear, what burial formulae were selected, etc. She also provides a quantitative comparison with pagan and Christian inscriptions from Rome.

THE JEWISH SYMBOLS on this tombstone from the Monteverde Catacombs include the menorah, lulav, etrog, and an amphora. The Greek inscription reads, “Here rest Primitiva and her grandson Euphrenōn. (May) their sleep (be) in peace.”

To learn more about the funerary inscriptions from Rome and what they tell us about the social and religious world of ancient Jews, read Megan Nutzman’s column “Jewish Epitaphs from Ancient Rome,” published in the Winter 2020 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

Subscribers: Read the full column “Jewish Epitaphs from Ancient Rome,” by Megan Nutzman, published in the Winter 2020 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

Read more in the BAS Library:

Not a BAS Library or All-Access Member yet? Join today.

A Rare Look at the Jewish Catacombs of Rome by Letizia Pitigliani

No one seems to know why it is so difficult to see the Jewish catacombs of Rome. But it is. The 1929 Concordat between the Italian Fascist government and the Vatican gave the Vatican control over all the catacombs of Italy—Christian, Jewish, and pagan.

The Oldest Hebrew Script and Language by Charles A. Kennedy

In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Marble Faun, a novel about young artists struggling to learn their craft in 19th century Rome, a group of painters visits the catacomb of Callistus on the old Appian Way. As they wander through the tunnels, their way lit by flickering candles, one of the young women becomes separated from the rest. She was lured away by the Ghost of the Catacombs!

The post Last Words appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

THE SO-CALLED GREEK CHAPEL in the Catacombs of Priscilla is richly decorated with paintings in the Pompeian style. Named for the two Greek inscriptions found by its discoverers in the right niche, this burial chapel contains numerous episodes from both the Old and New Testament. The central arch (at the back) is depicted with a funeral banquet, which was held at the tomb in honor of the dead and referred to the Eucharist.

A recent article in the Biblical Archaeology Review focused on one specific motif that appears frequently in catacombs—Jesus holding what appears to be a wand. For that discussion, read the article “Jesus the Magician? Why Jesus Holds a Wand in Early Christian Art,” by Lee M. Jefferson, in the Fall 2020 issue of BAR.

Among the most famous subterranean cemeteries are the Catacombs of Priscilla, in Rome. Located on the Via Salaria, this underground is one of the most ancient Christian burial grounds. Its galleries stretch a total length of about eight miles (13 km), containing some 40,000 burials. The Catacombs of Priscilla are sometimes referred to as the “queen of the catacombs,” because they harbor graves of many early Christian martyrs. Dug out between the second and the fifth centuries, the catacombs were rediscovered only in the 16^th century.

To admire the extensive system of underground passages and ancient depictions in the famous Catacombs of Priscilla, you can get on the plane, land at the Fiumicino Airport, take a train to Rome and then a subway line B to Annibaliano. From there it is just a few minutes’ walk to the Priscilla catacombs. Alternatively, you can tour the Catacombs of Priscilla virtually. You can also visit the official website.

But you would be wrong to assume that catacombs were a purely Christian way of burying their dead. In the first few centuries of our era, the large Jewish population of Rome created at least five catacombs that scholars now recognize as Jewish.

Among them are the so-called Catacombs of the Hebrews, located beneath the grounds of the Villa Torlonia—for 18 years a residence of Mussolini. Like the abovementioned Catacombs of Priscilla, the Catacombs of the Hebrews were created between the second and the fifth centuries; they host approximately 3,800 burials, arranged on two floors. Their walls and ceilings are decorated with Jewish motifs, such as menorahs, the Ark of the Covenant, and symbolic fruits like the pomegranate and the etrog. Rediscovered during construction work in 1919, the catacombs were looted and badly damaged—partly because they did not enjoy the same level of protection the Christian catacombs received from the Catholic Church.

THE JEWISH RELIGIOUS ICONOGRAPHY depicted in this burial chapel in the Villa Torlonia catacombs in Rome prominently features the Ark of the Covenant flanked by two menorahs, as well as the pomegranate and the etrog fruit.

The recent restoration of this cultural site not only led to a renewed study of the stunning decorations but also sparked a controversy regarding the ancient burials. Despite the outcry of the scientific community, an ultra-orthodox group was finally allowed to rebury the human remains found within the catacombs, putting them beyond the reach of curious researchers.

To get a sense of what these look like, you can watch this YouTube video.

The post Tour the Roman Catacombs appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

THE CITY OF PALMYRA ranked among the wealthiest and most important centers of the ancient world. The grand colonnaded street that dominates this image formed the axis of the city. In the background is the great temple of Ba’al, built in the first century C.E. Photo: Ron Van Oers; © UNESCO; CC-BY-3.0

But Palmyra offers also a much less conspicuous, yet historically significant, group of monuments. Written in the local dialect of the Aramaic language, called Palmyrene Aramaic, thousands of inscriptions remain—both in the city and throughout the Roman world. A particular group among these epigraphic sources represents inscriptions that provide a Latin text in addition to the native Aramaic. “These bilingual inscriptions provide a window into the lives and culture of ancient Palmyra, especially into how the Palmyrenes responded to Roman influence and power,” posits Catherine E. Bonesho of the University of California, Los Angeles.

ERECTED IN ROME in the second century C.E., this marble altar bears four sculptural reliefs (one per side) and two inscriptions. Representing the Roman sun god Sol and featuring an inscription in Latin, the left image presents the frontal side of the altar that was meant as the visually primary one. The inscription reads, “(This monument) is consecrated to the most holy Sun. Ti(berius) Claudius Felix, Claudia Helpis, and their s(on), Ti(berius) Claudius Alypus, from the third courtyard of the apartment house in the Galban complex, gratefully (offer this) in fulfillment of a vow to (the Sun,) who has earned it.” <em>Photo: Jean-Pol Grandmont; CC-BY-3.0</em>
THE PALMYRENE GOD MALAKBEL is riding in a chariot in the right relief from the same dedicatory altar. Both the image and the inscription (in Palmyrene Aramaic) on this side of the altar are visually secondary. Not a translation of the Latin text, the inscription reads, “This is the altar (which) Tiberius Claudius Felix and the Palmyrenes offered to Malakbel and the gods of Palmyra. To their gods. Peace!” <em>Photo: Musei Capitolini, Rome, MC 107; inv. no. NCE 2412</em>

Writing for the Summer 2020 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review, Bonesho claims that the physical appearance of these bilingual inscriptions can tell us which of the two inscriptions was meant as the visually primary one. A specialist in the imperial contexts of Judaism during the Second Temple and Rabbinic periods, Bonesho in her column “Maintaining Cultural Balance: Palmyrene Bilingual Inscriptions and Roman Imperialism” explains that the Latin element is primary in all 20 Latin-Aramaic inscriptions—whether they come from Palmyra or Rome.
To find out what this and other observations tell us about the Palmyrenes’ attitudes to Roman power and the process of cultural Romanization, read “Maintaining Cultural Balance: Palmyrene Bilingual Inscriptions and Roman Imperialism,” published in the Summer 2020 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review.

Read more in the BAS Library

Not a BAS Library or All-Access Member yet? Join today.

From Ebla to Damascus: The Archaeology of Ancient Syria Eight thousand years in the history of ancient Syria are on display in a magnificent exhibit that is touring six American cities.a Collected under the title “From Ebla to Damascus,” its objects vividly illustrate a sweep of civilizations ranging from the simple settlements of the Neolithic seventh millennium B.C. to the great Mesopotamian cultures eventually conquered by the Assyrians, the Babylonians and Alexander the Great, to the rise of Christianity and the impact of Islam. The objects have been assembled from museums throughout Syria, and generously loaned by the Syrian government to form one of the most comprehensive shows of ancient art to travel to American museums in recent years. Together these artifacts—whether scraps of clay with imprints of seals or writing, or large statues and wall paintings—allow us to take our own trip into the antiquity of a country that was, to the ancient Near East, the site of the Garden of Eden.

Reactivating Remembrance: Interactive Inscriptions from Mt. Gerizim What went on in ancient sanctuaries? In spite of the information we get from texts such as the Hebrew Bible, from inscriptions and iconography, and from archaeology, we know precious little about what “ordinary people” did when they visited a temple in ancient Palestine. Yet we do have some clues. The dedicatory inscriptions from the Yahweh temple on Mt. Gerizim help us envision what a visit to an ancient sanctuary may have entailed.

Biblical Views: Neither Jew nor Greek, Slave nor Free, Male and Female How would we live together in an ideal society? In his letters, the apostle Paul formulated something of an answer to this question. Paul expected an imminent cosmic change, a new creation ushered in by the death and resurrection of the Messiah. Prominent in his vision of this new creation was the fact that all the nations of the world would worship the one true God, together with Israel. Consequently, the apostle called upon gentiles to abandon their gods, to accept God’s Messiah, and to live “in Christ,” in expectation of what was about to happen. “In Christ,” Paul writes, “there is neither Jew nor Greek, neither slave nor free, nor male and female” (Galatians 3:28).

The post Latin Over Aramaic? appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Each spring I am somewhere in the eastern Mediterranean, leading a BAS group that’s visiting archaeological and biblical sites. But with the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, all such tours have been canceled through much of 2020. One of my favorite itineraries follows the footsteps of Paul in Turkey. We begin in the southeast at Antakya, ancient Antioch on the Orontes, and end on the northwest Aegean coast at Alexandria Troas. It takes about two weeks and around two thousand miles to visit the twenty-three sites in Turkey related to Paul. Participants, exhausted after long bus rides each day, always comment about the vast geographical landscape that Paul walked on his missionary journeys.

Presently Turkey, like other countries in the throes of the coronavirus pandemic, has imposed regulations to curb its spread. Stay-at-home orders have been issued, social distancing is practiced, and masks are required when shopping in grocery stores and fruit/vegetable markets. For the past four weekends there has been a total lockdown in many provinces, so no one is allowed outdoors. These lockdowns have been a bit stressful for me, maybe because I grew up on the wide-open prairies of North Dakota and am used to the freedom of going outside at any time. Such anxiety is not peculiar to me, I’ve learned; many others are experiencing various degrees of “cabin fever” and also longing to get outdoors once again.

Become a BAS All-Access Member Now!

Read Biblical Archaeology Review online, explore 50 years of BAR, watch videos, attend talks, and more

In the midst of trip cancellations and mandated lockdowns, I’ve begun to realize that I was missing one dimension of Paul’s journeys. Although aware of his extended imprisonments in Caesarea and Rome, each for approximately two years (Acts 24 –28), I had largely glossed over them. Why? Because they didn’t concern land or sea travel, but presented Paul as a prisoner constrained and immobilized. During his two decades of traveling freely in ministry, Paul had experienced brief incarcerations, as in Philippi (Acts 16:23 –40) and in the Antonia Fortress in Jerusalem (Acts 21:34 –23:22). But little did he know that, following his arrival in Caesarea Maritima, his freedom was about to be curtailed for an extended period. As a Roman citizen, perhaps he presumed speedy exoneration from the false charges brought against him. However, after his first hearing before Felix, Paul’s case was continued, and he was confined under guard (Acts 23:35 –24:27). The only positive outcome was that Paul would not be hindered from receiving visitors to provide for him. For under Roman law a prisoner did not become a ward of the state but relied on family and friends to supply his material needs.

Saint Paul Writing His Epistles: Early 17th Century, probably by Valentin de Boulogne

To learn more about Paul’s confinements, I turned to Brian Rapske[1]. He suggests that Paul was kept in Herod’s praetorium (NKJV; ESV), also translated “residence” (NIV; NET) or “headquarters” (NRSV; NLT). Regarding the architecture of this structure, Israeli archaeologist Ehud Netzer[2] notes that it had two sections—a Lower Palace built by Herod around 22-20 B.C.E. and an Upper Palace added a decade or so later. Modern tours of Caesarea always visit the remains of this palace situated on a rocky promontory jutting into the sea and adjacent to the hippodrome. The Lower Palace, with its elaborate pools and baths, was Herod’s private residence. The Upper Palace was used to host public receptions and meetings. After the Romans made Judea a province in 6 C.E., they converted the palace to the governor’s residence as well as a praetorium and staff headquarters.

In Paul’s day the Roman governors Felix and Festus resided here. His frequent appearances before them suggest that he was housed nearby in the Upper Palace. Its large peristyle courtyard measured 210 ft x 138 ft. Its north side had a large wing of rooms measuring 203 ft x 79 ft. The basilical hall on the western side was probably where his audience with the governors along with King Agrippa and Bernice were conducted. The complex had bathing facilities, so at least Paul could wash himself. Despite such accommodations with a sea view of the Mediterranean, Paul was likely chained to a centurion throughout his stay. For as Seneca (Epistle 5.7) analogizes, “Just as the same chain fastens the prisoner and the soldier who guards him….” Locked down as a prisoner, Paul must have quickly found this two-year confinement tedious and restrictive.

Paul’s “stay-at-praetorium” ended with his appeal to Caesar, and soon he was on his way to Rome, still chained to a centurion. Surviving a shipwreck and a rescue on Malta, Paul finally arrived in Rome (Acts 28:16 –31). There he was permitted to rent a private lodging at his own expense. The residence was probably near the Castra Praetoria in Rome, where the centurion delivered his prisoner upon arrival. Once again believers could attend to his physical needs, and he was visited by Rome’s Jewish leaders as well. According to Rapske[3], the size and type of Paul’s of lodging is unknown but certainly large enough to host groups of visitors. Nevertheless, he remained chained to a soldier and not allowed freedom of movement. This Roman imprisonment stretched into another two years of stay-at-home.

Reading these accounts in Acts again about Paul’s two prolonged lockdowns suggested to me parallels with our situation during the COVID-10 pandemic. Even as Paul could receive guests and visitors, we can entertain friends and family virtually in our dwellings through Skype, Zoom, and FaceTime. However, our present stay-at-home situation pales in comparison to what the apostle experienced both in length and conditions. Consider: a chain continually chafing his wrist, iron links rattling when he turned over in bed, the same four walls staring back monotonously, an open road and glassy sea now just fading memories. Pondering my own sense of anxiety at this time, I have realized that I was traveling, in part, on a similar inward journey that Paul probably experienced during his two confinements. The time when this global lockdown will ease is unknown. Meanwhile, we are all praying for the containment of COVID-19 so that life can somewhat resume to normal. Maybe next year we can again travel in the footsteps of Paul. But while we are waiting, let’s not waste this opportunity to reflect on Paul’s four years of lockdown and to join him on a different kind of journey, which the final word in Acts reminds us, was truly “unhindered.”

Dr. Mark Wilson is the founder and director of the Asia Minor Research Center in Antalya, Turkey, a country in which he and his wife Dindy have lived since 2004. He received a D.Litt. et Phil. from the University of South Africa (Pretoria) where he serves as a Research Fellow in Biblical Archaeology. He is also Associate Professor Extraordinary of New Testament at Stellenbosch University. Mark regularly leads study trips for BAS to Turkey, Greece, Malta, and Italy. He also blogs periodically for Bible History Daily. He is the author and editor of numerous books, articles, and reviews including Biblical Turkey: A Guide to the Jewish and Christian Sites of Asia Minor. Mark is a member of numerous academic societies including the Society for New Testament Studies, Society of Biblical Literature, and ASOR. His research interests include ancient Jewish communities, Roman roads, and Biblical routes in the eastern Mediterranean. Mark often travels with Dindy to archaeological sites; they have four adult children, four grandsons, and four granddaughters.

1. Brian Rapske, The Book of Acts and Paul in Roman Custody, The Book of Acts in its First Century Setting (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans-Lighting Source, 2004), 167–72.
2. Ehud Netzer, The Architecture of Herod, the Great Builder (Ada: Baker Academic, 2008), 106–11.
3. Rapske, The Book of Acts and Paul in Roman Custody, 236-39.

Read more about Paul’s Travels in the BAS Library:

Not a BAS Library or All-Access Member yet? Join today.

Corinth & Ephesus: Why did Paul spend half his journeys in these cities?  Paul’s three missionary “journeys” form a standard feature in New Testament maps and histories. The impression that emerges from the account in Acts of the Apostles 1–21 in the New Testament is that Paul three times set out from Antioch in Syria on a succession of missionary “journeys,” during which he preached and founded churches in a dozen or more cities. On his first journey, he established churches on the island of Cyprus and in Anatolia (modern Turkey); on his second journey, in Macedonia and southern Greece; and on his third journey, in Ephesus.1

However, a closer examination of these chapters from the Book of Acts reveals a different picture.

On the Road and on the Sea with St. Paul  In the Acts of the Apostles, we are told that Paul made three missionary journeys. In almost every introduction to the New Testament I have seen, the author discusses St. Paul’s journeys in terms of places and dates; his concern is to establish the location of the cities Paul visited and to fix the exact time he visited them. But when Paul himself speaks of his travels he emphasizes, not the “where” or the “when,” but the “how.”

Why Paul Went West: The differences between the Jewish diasporas  The Jewish diaspora in Roman times and Late Antiquity was not just a scattering of people from the Land of Israel. Geographical, cultural, religious and language differences resulted in two distinct diasporas—western and eastern—which helps explain why Paul went west from Jerusalem.

A New Reconstruction of Paul’s Prison  The Antonia, the palace/fortress lavishly described by the ancient Jewish historian Josephus at the northwest corner of the Herodian Temple Mount, is not mentioned by name in the New Testament. For a long time, however, it was thought to be the “praetorium” where Pilate questioned Jesus and found him innocent.

The post In the Footsteps of Paul during COVID-19 appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Archaeologists excavating the Roman bathhouse of Meninx. (Photo: Stefanie Holzem/MAP)

2,000 years ago, at the height of the Roman Empire, Meninx was an important port off the coast of North Africa, with trading ties to Italy Spain, Greece, Asia Minor, and Egypt. It apparently enjoyed great wealth from trading textiles dyed with purple from the native snails.

Photo: Paul Scheding/MAP

As announced by the Ludwig Maximilians Universitat Munchen, using magnetometer surveys, a joint German-Tunisian team has completed a mapping of the city of Meninx. The study was led by archaeologists Stefan Ritter, of LMU, and Sami Ben Tahar, of Institut National du Patrimoine, Tunis. Following their maps, they were able to complete preliminary excavations of business and residential buildings, as well as temples and shrines.

Read the LMU Munich release here.

Related reading in Bible History Daily:

In Jesus’ Time: The Ancient Art of the Deal For thousands of years, different peoples have interacted with each other by fighting wars and also by trading. In addition to the conquests that built an empire like the world had never known before, the Romans traded extensively.

Roman Curse Tablet Uncovered in Jerusalem’s City of David 1,700 years ago, a woman named Kyrilla had vengeance on the mind. A Roman-era curse tablet discovered in a mansion in Jerusalem’s City of David invokes four religious traditionsan attempt to “strike and strike down and nail down the tongue, the eyes, the wrath, the ire, the anger, the procrastination” of a figure opposed to Kyrilla.

Roman Ships Discovered off Turkish Coast Two Roman ships were discovered by Italian archaeologists working near the Cilician Roman city Elaiussa Sebaste in southeastern Turkey. Elaiussa Sebaste’s location on a narrow isthmus made it ideal for trade between Anatolia, Egypt and Syria.

The post Meninx Mapped appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.