The Via Dolorosa, the Christian processional path in Jerusalem’s Old City. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

According to many Christian traditions, the Via Dolorosa (Latin for the “Way of Suffering”) marks the processional route taken by Jesus of Nazareth on his way to be crucified.

Although the route was first mentioned in the records of Byzantine pilgrims, the modern route was only established in the 18th century. Over the years, the Via Dolorosa has shifted numerous times, as the city around it has transformed and control of the city’s Christian holy sites passed from faction to faction.

Beginning at the Antonia Fortress, the path winds its way to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, a journey of roughly 2,000 feet. The current route consists of 14 stations, marking various locations along Jesus’s journey. Nine of the stations lie along the way to the Sepulchre, while the final five are within the Holy Sepulchre itself.

Not only is the Via Dolorosa an important pilgrimage destination for Christians, but its winding history also sheds light on the ways that the city itself has evolved over the last 2,000 years.

Explore this wonder for yourself with this short video tour of the Via Dolorosa, led by Biblical Archaeology Review assistant editor Nathan Steinmeyer.

The Via Dolorosa: Byzantine Period (c. 324–634 C.E.)

Jerusalem’s modern Old City. Courtesy Biblical Archaeology Society.

The earliest references to the Via Dolorosa come from the records of Christian pilgrims who visited Jerusalem towards the end of the Byzantine period. During this time, the processional route began on the Mount of Olives, where pilgrims would make their way from the Eleona Church to Gethsemane, and then into the city via St. Stephen’s Gate (modern Lions’ Gate). Once inside the city, the route followed a very similar path to the route used today, although there were no formal stops or stations until one reached the Holy Sepulchre.¹

The Early Islamic and Crusader Periods (c. 634–1291)

By the eighth century, the processional route had changed. Instead of traveling straight from Gethsemane to the Holy Sepulchre, pilgrims would instead go around the city to the south. The route then led to the house of Caiaphas, located near the Temple Mount/Noble Sanctuary, before heading to Calvary. Eventually, control over Jerusalem’s Christian sites was divided between various Catholic factions. This meant that competing routes for the Via Dolorosa emerged, each taking pilgrims past holy sites controlled by one or another Christian faction.

Jerusalem’s Via Dolorosa. Courtesy Biblical Archaeology Society.

The Late Islamic and Ottoman Periods (c. 1291–1917)

This situation would come to an end in the 14th century, when Pope Clement VI declared the Holy Land to be under the custody of the Franciscan order. At this time, the Franciscan route ran from their monastery on Mount Zion to the Holy Sepulchre. After this, the route led back out through Lions’ Gate to Gethsemane and finally back to Mount Zion. It was not until the early 16th century that the path would change once again to reflect the general sequence of events related to Jesus’s final walk and crucifixion. Over the centuries of Franciscan control of the Via Dolorosa, stations have gradually developed, often with disagreement on the number or location of specific stations. Finally, in the 18th century, the route and most stations received their modern form, although some stations were not finalized until a century later.

Entrance to the Church of Our Lady of the Spasm. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

The Path of Jesus?

Although the Via Dolorosa has been in use for more than a thousand years, many biblical scholars and historians doubt that the modern route follows the path described by the Gospels. As discussed, Christian tradition has shifted the route several times over its history. Beyond the modern disagreement on the true burial place of Jesus of Nazareth, many scholars have also argued that Jesus would not have been tried and sentenced at the Antonia Fortress. Instead, it is more likely that such an event would have taken place at Herod’s Palace, located near the present Tower of David to the west of the Holy Sepulchre.

Walking along the Via Dolorosa. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Notes

1 Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide, fifth edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008).

This article was first published in Bible History Daily on April 1, 2024.

Related reading in Bible History Daily

The Terra Sancta Museum: A New Stop on the Via Dolorosa

OnSite: The Walls of Jerusalem

OnSite: Caesarea Maritima

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library

A Look Inside the Antonia

Does the Holy Sepulchre Church Mark the Burial of Jesus?

Easter and the Death of Jesus

The post OnSite: The Via Dolorosa appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

Ramesses II’s Lost Sarcophagus

While the mummy of Ramesses II—known as Ramesses the Great and suggested by some to be the infamous pharaoh of the Exodus—was discovered in 1881, it was not found inside its original coffin, as the body had been moved to a plain wooden coffin in antiquity to protect it from grave robbers. Now, it appears that part of the original granite sarcophagus from his burial has been discovered in a Coptic monastery in Abydos.

Deep Sea Late Bronze Age Shipwreck

While surveying the floor of the Mediterranean 55 miles off Israel’s coast, an international energy company made a startling find: the oldest deep-sea shipwreck ever discovered. Located over a mile below the waves, this shipwreck could rewrite the history of ancient seafaring, showing that Mediterranean sailors left the safety of the coastline much earlier than previously thought.

Archaeologists examining storage jars from the shipwreck. Courtesy Emil Aladjem, IAA

Hercules, Hydra, & Hazor?

What do a Mesopotamian cylinder seal, a Greek vase, and the Book of Revelation have in common? Seven-headed serpents. The only issue is that scholars are not certain why. Now, a small stamp seal discovered at the site of Hazor in northern Israel may finally provide a clue as to how the myth of the seven-headed serpent was transmitted between cultures across the millennia.

A Genie in Jerusalem

How did an Assyrian genie end up in Jerusalem during the First Temple period? During continued excavations of the City of David in Jerusalem, the Israel Antiquities Authority uncovered a rare stone seal bearing two names in paleo-Hebrew script and a depiction of a Neo-Assyrian winged genie. Likely belonging to a high official in the Judahite court, the seal would have served as both a signature and a protective amulet.

Rare stone seal with an Assyrian genie and paleo-Hebrew writing. Courtesy Eliyahu Yanai, City of David.

Herculaneum Scrolls Deciphered

The 2,000-year-old Herculaneum Scrolls make up one of the largest extant libraries from antiquity, whose importance might well rival that of the Dead Sea Scrolls. But ever since their discovery in the 18th century, they have been almost completely unreadable, having been turned into little more than ash when Mt. Vesuvius erupted in 79 CE. Now, in what may be one of the most significant archaeological discoveries in decades, the Herculaneum Scrolls have been unlocked.

Pompeii Tiny House Frescoes

Archaeologists working in Pompeii have discovered yet another incredible home buried by Mt. Vesuvius. Nicknamed the House of Phaedra, the walls of the house preserve several beautiful wall paintings. The best preserved depicts a scene from Euripides’s tragedy Hippolytus, where a barely dressed Phaedra reclines before a nude Hippolytus, with an unidentified man between them. Another painting shows a satyr and a nymph in an intimate embrace, and a third may be a rendering of the Judgement of Paris.

Scene of Phaedra (left) and Hippolytus (far right) discovered during new excavations in Pompeii. Credit: Archaeological Park of Pompeii.

Paul’s Prison in Caesarea

The final story highlighted by the scholars involves a fascinating room built into the Herodian Promontory Palace at Caesarea Maritima, a city where the apostle Paul spent several years in jail before being sent to Rome for trial before Caesar. According to some scholars, this complex, built as a basement of the seafront palace, may be the same room where Paul was imprisoned.

Related reading in Bible History Daily

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Beta Giyorgis (Church of St. George). Photo: “Bete Giyorgis 03” by Bernard Gagnon is licensed under CC-by-SA-3.0.

While many spectacular churches have been constructed in Ethiopia, perhaps the country’s most famous churches are the rock-hewn churches. Located 150 miles south of Aksum, Lalibela is the best example of Ethiopia’s hypogean (rock-hewn) architectural tradition. With 11 rock-hewn churches, Lalibela is understandably a place of pilgrimage for those in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. The site Lalibela was originally called Roha, but it eventually took the name of King Lalibela, who ruled around 1200 C.E. as part of the Zagwe dynasty. King Lalibela is traditionally attributed as the builder of all the churches at the site.

Lalibela’s 11 churches are carved out of a hillside, which is made of soft reddish volcanic rock. The churches can be divided into two complexes—a northern and a southeastern complex—that are connected through a series of carved passageways and naturally occurring wadis. Six churches are featured in the northern complex and four in the southeastern complex. The 11th church—Beta Giyorgis (Church of St. George)—stands alone and is not part of either interconnecting complex.

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The northern complex is composed of:

1. Beta Madhane Alem (Church of the Savior of the World)
2. Beta Maryam (Church of Mary)
3. Beta Masqal (Church of the Cross)
4. Beta Danagel (Church of the Virgins)
5. Beta Mika’el (Church of Michael)
6. Beta Golgotha (Church of Golgotha)

The southeastern complex consists of:

7. Beta Emmanuel (Church of Emmanuel)
8. Beta Abba Libanos (Church of Father Libanos)
9. Beta Merkurios (Church of Mercurius)
10. Beta Gabriel and Beta Rafa’el (the twin churches of Gabriel and Raphael)

Plan of the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Ethiopia. On the plan, the area marked 1 is the northern complex of churches; 2 marks the southeastern complex of churches; and 3 marks Beta Giyorgis. Photo: From David W. Phillipson, Ancient Churches of Ethiopia: Fourth–Fourteenth Centuries (New Haven and London: Yale Univ. Press, 2009), fig. 188.

Located west of the other complexes, the final—and most famous—rock-hewn church of Lalibela is (11) Beta Giyorgis (Church of St. George), which is featured in the article “Where Is the Land of Sheba—Arabia or Africa?” by Bar Kribus in the September/October 2016 issue of Biblical Archaeology Review. Shaped like a cross, Beta Giyorgis sits on a stepped platform inside a 72-by-72-foot courtyard that is 36 feet deep. Originally, it was accessible only from the west by means of a long approach—measuring nearly 100 feet—that led uphill and connected the church to the wadi below. Standing at the same level as the church, it is not immediately apparent that Beta Giyorgis is shaped like a cross, but from above, it becomes clear that not only is it shaped like a cross, but that Greek crosses have been carved into its roof as well. Beta Giyorgis has three doors and twelve windows.

Beta Giyorgis (Church of St. George), view from above. Photo: “Lalibela Église Bet Giyorgis” by Julien Demade is licensed under CC-by-SA-3.0.

Each of the windows is adorned by a cross and floral motif carved in relief above its opening. An additional nine false windows are carved into the exterior of the church at the same level as the doors, but they do not open into the church’s interior. Of all the churches at Lalibela, Beta Giyorgis is the best preserved. Dated to the late 12th or early 13th century, it is also one of the latest churches at the site. The other churches are estimated to have been built over a span of several centuries—from the 10th through the 13th centuries or later.

Related reading in Bible History Daily:

Who Is the Queen of Sheba in the Bible?

Expedition Claims Evidence of Queen of Sheba Found in Ethiopia

Pilgrims’ Progress to Byzantine Jerusalem

To Jerusalem: Pilgrimage Road Identified?

This Bible History Daily feature was originally published on August 25, 2016.

The post The Rock-Hewn Churches of Lalibela appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

A Holy Cave and Constantine’s Church of the Nativity

The first church built at the site was commissioned by the Roman emperor Constantine in the early fourth century; the church was consecrated on May 31, 339. However, references to the site may date as far back as the second century, with a possible mention by Justin Martyr in his Dialogue with Trypho (78.5–6).

Doorway to the Cave of the Nativity. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Certainly, though, by the mid-third century, the site—or one very nearby—had taken on a sacred position, as the early Church Father Origen writes about a cave in Bethlehem that was known to be the place of Jesus’s birth (Against Celsus 1.51). Thus, following Empress Helena’s trip to the Holy Land in 327 CE, a basilica was constructed above the cave, parts of which still exist today. This church consisted primarily of an octagonal altar located directly above the cave, with a five-aisle nave and an atrium.

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The Church of Justinian

Constantine’s Church of the Nativity would stand until the early sixth century when it was partly burned down. It is uncertain what event caused this damage, although many have suggested that it was a result of the Samaritan revolts, which were responsible for the burning of several other churches in the region. Nevertheless, the church was reconstructed soon after by Emperor Justinian. It is Justinian’s basilica that still stands today, although numerous modifications have been made through the centuries.

Column capital from the time of Justinian. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Although many modifications and refurbishments occurred during the Crusader period (1099–1291 CE), some sections of the church still preserve Constantine’s original fourth-century construction. The Justinian church changed the octagonal altar area into a triconch (or cruciform) shape. The nave was extended and the atrium was covered to construct a narthex. Along the nave and transepts, Justinian had placed 50 columns, each around 18 feet tall, constructed from local stone quarried near Jerusalem’s Old City.

Islamic Rule and the Crusader Period

Unlike most other churches in the region, the Church of the Nativity remained relatively unscathed between the time of Justinian and the modern day, avoiding destruction during the periods of instability and turmoil that accompanied the Sassanid, Islamic, and Crusader conquests. Part of this was due to the church’s distance from Jerusalem, and the relative insignificance of Bethlehem for the region’s strategic defense. The church’s survival even led to stories and legends that it was miraculously protected from such events.

Section of a Mosaic dating to the Crusader period. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

During the early Islamic period (c. 634–1099 CE), a Muslim prayer space was introduced into the church alongside the traditional areas of Christian worship. The site remained a pilgrimage destination for western Christians during this time, and in 808 CE, Charlemagne sent a mission to the church to record its various details and possibly even carry out some repairs.

Painted column of a saint in the Church of the Nativity. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

On June 7, 1099, the Crusading Franks conquered Bethlehem and the Church of the Nativity. The following year, Baldwin of Boulogne’s coronation as king of the Kingdom of Jerusalem took place inside the church. Baldwin II would likewise be crowned king at the site in 1119.

During its years under Crusader control, extensive repairs and modifications were made to the church, mainly to bring it into conformity with the Latin rite. The basic plan of the Justinian church was left in place, however, as well as many of the various architectural features, including the columns. The Crusaders further encircled the complex in a large wall, parts of which were later incorporated into various monasteries that still stand today.

Beginning in the Crusader period, numerous murals, mosaics, and paintings were added to the church, including the lavish wall mosaics that are still partially preserved today, and the column paintings of various saints and supplicants, which were likely a joint venture between the church leaders and wealthy pilgrims.

The Church from Saladin until Today

The door of Humilty, constructed during the Ottoman period. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Upon Saladin’s conquest of the Holy Land (c. 1187), much of the Roman Catholic clergy left the Church of the Nativity. Nevertheless, the church suffered very little damage and Christian worship continued at the site under the Greek Orthodox, Armenians, and other Christian traditions, although eventually the Roman Catholics would return as well. The Church would continue relatively unaltered until the Ottoman period (c. 1516–1917).

Under the Ottomans, much of the marble, which had once decorated the Church of the Nativity, was plundered, possibly to be used in refurbishing Jerusalem’s Dome of the Rock. Although still in use, the church would enter a long period of decay. Likewise, the central nave of the church, was used for non-worship purposes, including legal proceedings and even housing Ottoman troops when required. Eventually, church officials regained control over the church although, over the next several centuries, it continued to fall into disrepair.

The Modern Church of the Nativity

The Church of the Nativity was nominated and added to the list of UNESCO World Heritage sites in 2012. At the time of its listing, it was considered in danger due to its poor state of preservation. However, in 2013, church officials and conservators began large-scale renovation works on the church, restoring it to much of its former glory and making the site far safer for the nearly 2 million visitors and pilgrims who arrive at the site every year.

Note:

For more about the archaeology and history of the Church of the Nativity, see Michele Bacci, The Mystic Cave: A History of the Nativity Church at Bethlehem (Roma: Masaryk University Viella, 2017).

Related reading in Bible History Daily:

December 25th and Christmas

How December 25 Became Christmas

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A Knight in Bethlehem?

Shall I Go to Bethlehem?

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Caesarea Maritima in the Bible

Caesarea Maritima is mentioned several times in the Book of Acts. By the early first century C.E., Caesarea was the capital of the Roman province of Judea and the location of the governor’s residence. According to Acts 10, the city was the site of the conversion of the Roman centurion Cornelius. The city is mentioned several times in association with Paul’s missionary journeys and is the location of an early church.

The theater of Herod the Great at Caesarea Maritima. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

The most important reference to Caesarea Maritima, however, comes in Acts 23–26, where it is the location of Paul’s trial before the Roman governors Felix and Festus and King Herod Agrippa II. After claiming the right of a Roman citizen to be tried before the emperor, Paul began his long journey to Rome from the port at Caesarea. Archaeologically, Caesarea Maritima is also the site of the discovery of the famous “Pilate Stone,” which records a dedicatory inscription by the Roman governor Pontius Pilate who presided over the trial of Jesus.

The remains of Herod’s promontory palace, possibly the site of Paul’s trial. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Caesarea Maritima under Herod the Great

Construction of the massive city of Caesarea Maritima began in 30 B.C.E., during the reign of Herod the Great, who named the city in honor of Caesar Augustus. Like many of Herod’s construction projects, Caesarea was built to rival the grandest cities in the Roman world. Built over the small Phoenician village of Straton’s Tower, Herod’s city of Caesarea stretched across more than 150 acres. It featured a palace, civil halls, an amphitheater, a hippodrome, aqueducts, a high defense wall, and an exquisite temple dedicated to Rome and Augustus.

Overlooking Herod’s artificial harbor. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Situated between the ancient ports of Jaffa and Dor, Caesarea lay along a 40-mile stretch of inhospitable Mediterranean coastline without any natural harbors. This would not stop Herod, however. As stated by Lindley Vann in a 1983 article in Biblical Archaeology Review:

“The harbor at Caesarea was an engineering marvel. On a stretch of eastern Mediterranean coastline known for its dangers to mariners and lacking sheltered anchorage, Herod built a harbor as large as Piraeus, the port of Athens. Two breakwaters, one on the north and one on the south, with a 60-foot entrance between them, enclosed a protected anchorage. The breakwaters extended as much as 1,500 feet from the shore. Within the main harbor was a sheltered inner harbor.” The harbor, which utilized recently invented Roman concrete, was one of the two or three largest ports in the ancient world, and certainly one of the most advanced.

Caesarea Maritima under the Romans

When Judea became a Roman province in 6 C.E., Caesarea Maritima replaced Jerusalem as the provincial capital. Likewise, in 135, following the Bar Kokhba Revolt, it would become the capital of the Roman province of Syria Palaestina, and later the capital of Palaestina Prima. The city flourished during the Roman and Byzantine periods (first–seventh centuries C.E.) and was larger than Jerusalem. During this time, the city greatly expanded, adding new walls, aqueducts, a second hippodrome, and more. The city was an important Christian center during this time as well.

The Byzantine bathhouse complex. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Caesarea in the Islamic and Crusader Periods

Caesarea Maritima was conquered and partly destroyed by Muslim forces in 640 C.E. During the Early Islamic period (634–1099 C.E.), the city is thought to have experienced an economic and social decline, losing its status as a provincial capital, though new excavations aim to improve scholarly understanding of the city’s role during this period. In 1101, the Crusaders conquered Caesarea and built a small harbor in the area of the former Herodian harbor. However, in 1291, the city was once again conquered, this time by the Mamluk Sultan Al-Malik Al-Ashraf. Afterwards, the city was largely destroyed and eventually deserted until it was eventually resettled as a small fishing village in the late 19th century.

This article was first published in Bible History Daily on January 24, 2022.

Read more in Bible History Daily:

OnSite: The Walls of Jerusalem

OnSite: Tel Gezer

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Caesarea Beneath the Sea

News from the Field: Herod’s Harbor Construction Recovered Underwater

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The walls of Jerusalem have shifted many times throughout history and today large sections of the ancient city lie outside the current Ottoman-era fortifications. Despite evidence of permanent settlement dating back to at least the Early Bronze Age (c. 3300–2300 B.C.E.), Jerusalem was not fortified until the Middle Bronze Age (c. 2000–1550 B.C.E.). Since then, the walls of Jerusalem have been destroyed and rebuilt multiple times. Indeed, the walls that surround the Old City of Jerusalem today are only around 500 years old, having been constructed by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent in the mid-16th century. Just like their builder, however, the modern walls can only be described as magnificent.

Looking out over the walls of Jerusalem. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Explore this wonder for yourself with this short video tour atop the walls of Jerusalem, led by Biblical Archaeology Review assistant editor Nathan Steinmeyer.

Jerusalem’s Walls in the Bronze and Iron Ages (c. 2000–586 B.C.E.)

During the Middle Bronze Age, the city of Jerusalem was fortified for the first time, with walls having been found in several areas around the City of David and surrounding the strategically important Gihon Spring. Archaeological and radiocarbon dating suggests to some that this was carried out as early as the 18th century B.C.E. The walls of the Canaanite city appear to have stood for around a thousand years, well into the time of the Israelite monarchy, with possible evidence of later repairs in the Iron Age. However, it is not clear if this wall was in use for that whole period, as the archaeological evidence for Late Bronze Age and early Iron Age Jerusalem remains murky and hotly debated. The late Eilat Mazar also suggested that King Solomon might have added to the defensive fortifications of Jerusalem (as mentioned in 1 Kings 3:1), but this interpretation is, again, debated among scholars.

The Broad Wall constructed by King Hezekiah (late eighth-century B.C.E.). Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

While the ancient city was mostly limited to the City of David, the walls were greatly expanded under King Hezekiah during preparations for the Assyrian invasion (c. 701 B.C.E.). Even today, numerous sections of Hezekiah’s wall remain visible. This wall would remain in use until 586 B.C.E. when it was destroyed by the Babylonians who conquered Jerusalem and took much of the population into exile (2 Kings 25:10).

Jerusalem’s Walls from the Persian to the Byzantine Periods (c. 586 B.C.E.–638 C.E.)

According to the Book of Nehemiah, the walls of Jerusalem lay in ruins until the fifth century B.C.E., when Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem as the provincial governor and completed the repairs of the walls that had begun under Ezra.

Ancient foundations of the walls of Jerusalem. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Under the rule of the Hasmonean dynasty, the city’s walls expanded once again, to form what the Jewish historian Josephus called the First Wall. The walls were expanded again under Herod the Great (r. 37–4 B.C.E.), who carried out lavish building activities throughout Jerusalem and the region, including the construction of the Temple Mount, the site of Herodium, and the port city of Caesarea Maritima. Herod Agrippa (r. 41–44 C.E.) added to the walls of Jerusalem again with the construction of the Third Wall, which was completed shortly before the First Jewish Revolt, during which the walls were almost completely destroyed by the Romans.

Dormition Abbey, built on the foundations of a fifth-century basilica. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Around 130 C.E., the city of Jerusalem was rebuilt by Emperor Hadrian as a Roman settlement and renamed Aelia Capitolina. However, the walls of the city remained in ruins until the end of the third century. A century after the Roman Empire’s conversion to Christianity, the city was renamed Jerusalem and its walls were greatly expanded by Empress Aelia Eudocia. The Byzantine walls mostly followed the lines and foundations of the earlier walls from the Second Temple period.

Jerusalem’s Walls in the Early Islamic Period (c. 638–1099)

After Jerusalem fell to the Umayyads in 638 C.E., the city’s Byzantine walls saw major repairs, and large parts of the Tower of David and the walls around the Temple Mount were constructed. These walls were largely destroyed in 1033, however, when a major earthquake struck the city. Upon their reconstruction, much of the southern part of the ancient city, including the City of David, was left outside the new walls.

Jerusalem’s Walls in the Middle Ages (c. 1099–1517)

The walls of Jerusalem were once again destroyed during the Crusader conquest of the city in 1099. Jerusalem’s walls were largely neglected by the Crusader kingdom, although moderate rebuilding activities attempted to close breaches in the walls. Upon regaining the city from the Crusaders, Saladin began refortifying the walls in 1192. Yet in 1219, the Ayyubids, fearing the Crusaders would regain the city, demolished the walls of Jerusalem to keep such a fortified position from falling into Crusader hands. Other than the Tower of David, the city of Jerusalem would remain an open city until its conquest by the Ottoman empire in 1517.

Inside the fosse moat of the Tower of David. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Jerusalem’s Walls Since the Ottoman Period

Arabic inscription inside Lions’ Gate. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

During the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520–1566), the city of Jerusalem regained its splendor and recovered from centuries of neglect. One of Sultan Suleiman’s greatest projects was the restoration of the walls of Jerusalem. These are the same walls that surround Jerusalem today. Many Arabic inscriptions found throughout the Old City record the dates that various gates and sections of the wall were rebuilt. Not every section was completed, however, and many towers were left unfinished. In the 19th century, many building updates were made to the Old City, including the construction of New Gate and the filling in of the moat that surrounds the Tower of David.

The Old City of Jerusalem is currently divided into the Muslim, Christian, Armenian, and Jewish Quarters. It is home to nearly 40,000 people and hosts dozens of Christian, Muslim, and Jewish holy sites. The walls of the Old City encompass an area of roughly 250 acres and extend for more than 2.5 miles. Although the wall’s size varies at different points, on average, it stands 40 feet tall and measures 8 feet thick. Although eight gates can be seen along the walls, only seven are in use today.

The walls of Jerusalem. Courtesy Nathan Steinmeyer.

Ready to walk around Jerusalem’s incredible walls yourself? Click here to take a video tour atop Jerusalem’s ancient walls.

Read more in Bible History Daily:

https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/biblical-sites-places/biblical-archaeology-sites/on-site-at-caesarea-maritima/

OnSite: The Via Dolorosa

OnSite: Caesarea Maritima

All-Access members, read more in the BAS Library:

The Jerusalem Wall That Shouldn’t Be There

Jerusalem Down Under: Tunneling Along Herod’s Temple Mount Wall

Old, New Banquet Hall by the Temple Mount

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The post OnSite: The Walls of Jerusalem appeared first on Biblical Archaeology Society.

WASHINGTON, DC: April 8, 2020—The Biblical Archaeology Society, publisher of Biblical Archaeology Review (BAR), has opened its Spring 2020 issue free to online readers worldwide. While people are staying home, the publication is providing an entertaining and enriching digital resource for anyone interested in archaeology and biblical research in the Near East.

“We are inviting people to explore the world of biblical archaeology,” said Robert C. Cargill, the magazine’s editor. Readers at our website will enjoy discovering ancient sites and current excavations. People in the times of the Bible come alive through the works of scholarly and entertaining writers.

Biblical Archaeology Review, a quarterly magazine, is brimming with stunning photos as well
as news, commentary, trivia, and much more.

The current issue highlights archaeological mysteries:

• Which is the true location of biblical Bethsaida? Read two articles, with each making the case for a different site on the Sea of Galilee.
• Was Qumran home only to the supposedly celibate Essenes who authored the Dead Sea Scrolls? Female skeletons discovered there question that notion.
• When did literacy emerge in Judah? New evidence sheds light on this question.

This is just a sample of the lively and readable articles packed into this and every issue of Biblical Archaeology Review. There is so much more available to readers.

The Biblical Archaeology Society’s website is rich with resources for the armchair archaeological explorer. With an online library of more than 9,000 articles from three publications, we have started a new feature called “Library Explorer,” featuring special topics of interest. Other publications available via the website are a series of free e-Books, videos, and articles, as well as a free issue of Bible Review.

This is the perfect time to delve into the treasures that archaeologists have discovered and presented in readable, informative articles in the pages of Biblical Archaeology Review.

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For example, Hilkiah’s discovery of “a book of the law” tucked away in the Temple (2 Kings 22:8), Jeremiah and Baruch’s tag-team to pen a set of scroll oracles against the king (Jer 36:2, 28-32), or Ezra’s unravelling and reading “a book of the law of Moses” (Neh 8:1) all connect us to important questions about the anchors of authority for developing ancestral traditions.

In such instances, our modern, Western minds default to thinking about what text  was discovered. Did Hilkiah discover Deuteronomy? Were Baruch’s scrolls copies of the book of Jeremiah? Was Ezra reading from the Pentateuch?

These are all valid questions and important ones to ask as we explore the back story of emerging Hebrew Scripture. Yet, in most cases, we should also inquire about how the authority of a tradition—whatever form it took—is less rooted in a text, per se, but in the personae associated with them.

From this perspective, Josiah and Ezra extend and elevate the authority of Mosaic tradition. Baruch and Jeremiah’s two scrolls associate the prophet with textuality, scribalism, and revelation. In these ways, when texts, books, scrolls, and writings turn up in biblical narratives, most often they claim authority for a tradition in the name of a famed figure of importance.

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By the Second Temple period, scribes and communities increasingly look to scriptures to form and maintain their identities. Strategies for claiming authority, then, for writings penned in this period are key.

While the Aramaic Dead Sea Scrolls draw upon and extend the authority of a variety of traditions in the Hebrew Scriptures, a common feature was casting figures or setting scenes where ancient or otherworldly “books” turn up in the hands of a lead character. To read, write, or reveal something from such materials was a way of claiming fresh insight from a distant past or world as well as dropping an anchor for authority.

The Genesis Apocryphon from Qumran Cave One deploys this strategy. In this episode of Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Shorts, we explore the significance and impact of Abraham reading and teaching from an Enochic book while sojourning in Egypt. Turns out, this is not only a claim to the antiquity and authority of his special knowledge, but a not-so-subtle jab at the intellectual culture of the Egyptians. As we’ll see, for Genesis Apocryphon, the nomad schools his nemesis!

The full episode is now available online at https://youtu.be/oMEfHjPmWys. Be sure to subscribe to Dr. Andrew Perrin’s YouTube channel and subscribe to Bible History Daily for news of future episodes.

Related reading by Dr. Andrew Perrin in Bible History Daily:

The Aramaic Afterlives of Genesis’s Giants The mention of giants before the flood in Genesis 6:4 has been both a source of imagination and interpretation down through the centuries. This curious passage, however, was the departure point for Aramaic exegesis that answered the question of the origins and end of all evil.

What is Pseudepigraphy and How Did It Shape Scripture? There are many voices in scripture, yet seldom do we hear that of scribes. One strategy ancient Jewish scribes used to transmit and create works was the practice of pseudepigraphy. What was it, how did it work, and why did it breathe new life into overlooked biblical characters?

Aramaic Biographies of Angels and Demons Part of the challenge and opportunity of studying the Bible is that, while it often feels familiar, it comes from a foreign context. The texts and traditions of scripture come from ancient cultures, people, places, and even languages that are lost to most modern minds.

We invite you to join The Biblical Archaeology Society from May 10 – 16, 2020 for expert Biblical scholarship, wonderful company and Southern relaxation at the Montreat Conference Center, nestled in the hills of North Carolina. Drs. James Tabor and April DeConick will present Excavating Forgotten, Misrepresented, and Marginalized Figures of Earliest Christianity, a series of 20 lectures.

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Lecture video courtesy of conference host Thomas E. Levy, distinguished professor and Norma Kershaw Chair in the Archaeology of Ancient Israel and Neighboring Lands at UCSD. All videos originally published on the Out of Egypt: Israel’s Exodus Between Text and Memory, History and Imagination website, which features additional Exodus research and more information on the UCSD conference.

In the FREE eBook Ancient Israel in Egypt and the Exodus, top scholars discuss the historical Israelites in Egypt and archaeological evidence for and against the historicity of the Exodus.

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FREE ebook: Masada: The Dead Sea’s Desert Fortress. Discover what archaeology reveals about the Jewish rebels’ identity, fortifications and arms before their ultimate sacrifice.

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Related reading in Bible History Daily:

Jewish Captives in the Imperial City

Yeshiva University Project Shines a Colorful Digital Light on the Arch of Titus

A Second Triumphal Arch of Titus Discovered

This Bible History Daily feature was originally published on April 12, 2017.

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